If you were to pull out a photo album or a box of old family pictures and go through them one at a time, how long would it be before you encountered a snapshot of a family member in a military uniform? If you are one of the seventy-five percent of Americans who can claim at least one family member who has served in the United States military, it probably wouldn’t take long.

Such pictures are a valuable resource for family historians and a tremendous aid in your search for genealogical information. In our own search through family pictures, we found pictures of both of our fathers, each of whom served in World War II, one in the navy and the other in the army.

Consider the clues you can uncover from studying a military photograph in your family photo collection:

1. The picture should identify the individual. Be certain you know the individual’s real name. For example, if you knew the soldier as Uncle Frank, his legal name may be Francis or even William Frank. His military records will list him under his legal name.

 

2. The picture should help you determine the war in which the individual served. Look for clues such as the style of uniform, the clothing style of others in the picture, or objects that can determine a time period, such as an automobile. This information is extremely important, as military records are filed according to the time period served.

3. The photograph should help you identify the branch in which your relative served through the uniform he wore. In most cases, military records were kept by branch—army, navy, etc.

4. A careful inspection of the picture may reveal other important clues, such as a symbol or a patch that represents rank or unit (battalion, division, or platoon). Such information is helpful when researching military records.

The information gleaned from a careful examination of an old military photo can be very helpful. But even if you don’t have old pictures, this information is critical to have in order to learn more.

It goes without saying that various types of records were created for every individual who served in the United States military. The real concern is learning what and where these records are, and how to use them as a research aid. The basic steps of learning about your military ancestor are:

1. Identify the individual (full legal name).
2. Identify the military branch.
3. Identify the time period.
4. Identify where the records are kept for that time period.
5. Secure the proper request form.
6. Complete and submit the form.

Time Period and War
As with other branches of the federal government, the United States military has kept excellent records of the men and women who have served the country. While these records were never intended to be a source of genealogical information, it is surprising how much information can be gleaned from these records.

It is entirely possible for an individual to have served in the military at any time during the nation’s history. But it is generally during war times that most people, usually young men between the ages of eighteen and thirty, enlisted or were drafted.

Below is a list of wars and military actions that the United States has participated in since it became a country. The wars begin with the most recent, since that is how they should be researched when following the basic rules of genealogy—going backward in time, moving from the known to the unknown.

American War Dates

Gulf War, 1991
Vietnam War, 1965-73
Korean War, 1950-53
World War II, 1941-45
World War I, 1917-18
Philippine Insurrection, 1899-1902
Spanish-American War, 1898
Civil War, 1861-65
Mexican War, 1846-48
Indian Wars, 1780s-1800
War of 1812, 1812-15
Revolutionary War, 1775-83

Prior to the Revolution, military service was rendered to the state in which the individual was residing. Therefore, records of that service are kept in the state’s archives or historical society. Remember also that even after the United States became a country, it is possible that your ancestor served in a state’s militia (National Guard), and those records would also be located by state as long as the unit was not called to aid the federal government. This fact underscores the importance of identifying the branch of military in which your ancestor served. A useful general reference book is U.S. Military Records by James C. Neagles (1994, Ancestry). This book should be available in most major genealogical research libraries.

Types of Records
Supposing that your ancestor served the federal government, federal military records fall into one or more of the following categories:

• Draft and conscription records
   
• Enlistment and service records
   
• Pension records
   
• National military cemetery records

Bounty land records, which can be considered pay or pension records, will be covered in a future article dealing with land records. Other types of military records also exist that will be covered in a later article. They include:

• Veterans' administration hospital records
   
• Soldiers' home records
   
• Lineage society records, i.e., D.A.R.
   
• Published unit histories
   
• Veterans' organizations, i.e., V.F.W.
   
• Military academy records
   
• Biographies

As a beginning genealogist, it is best to pursue one particular type of record. Service records and pension records tend to be the most accessible and are recommended for the beginner for that reason. As you learn more about your military ancestor, you can pursue other records to fill in the details of his or her service.

Service Records
Service records comprise the bulk of information the government keeps on any soldier. According to the National Archives and Records Administration, such records document enlistment/appointment, duty stations and assignments, training, qualifications, performance, awards and medals, disciplinary actions, insurance, emergency data, administrative remarks, separation, discharge, retirement, and other personnel actions.

The useful genealogical data you might learn from service records could include the individual’s full name, rank, age, physical description, marital status, occupation, city of birth, and place of residence at enlistment

Pension Records
Pension records represent the real fun for military records research because these are the records that provide the most genealogical data, especially if your military ancestor served prior to the twentieth century.

Because there was no Social Security before the 1930s, many American families depended on the pension awarded to deserving veterans. The federal government awarded pensions to officers, disabled veterans, needy veterans, widows/ orphans of veterans, and veterans who served a certain length of time. But to get such a pension, the veteran had to go through a somewhat lengthy application process. The federal government kept a pension file on every applicant.

Pension files contain all the paperwork associated with the application, including any supporting documentation. From these files you might learn some or all of the following: the applicant’s name, spouse’s name (possibly even a wife’s maiden name), rank, military unit, length of enlistment, and residence at time of application. In some cases, additional information is also included, such as documented proof of service (affidavits from officers or others who could attest to the individual’s service), discharge papers that had been given to the applicant at the time of separation, and even personal information like date and place of birth, marriage, or death.

When a widow applied for a pension in the name of her husband, she was required to submit evidence to prove her marriage; this often included the names of any children living with her at the time.

If you are not certain whether your military ancestor received a pension, the federal government has published lists of pensioners at different times in history. These lists give the soldier’s name, service information, age, death date, and even his or her heirs. Such lists are available for the years 1792-95, 1813, 1817, 1818, 1820, 1823, 1828, 1831, 1835, 1840, 1849, 1857, 1883, and 1899. These lists can be found in the U.S. Congressional Serial Set located in federal repository libraries or in the libraries of most major universities. Also, the federal censuses of 1840, 1890, and 1910 list veterans and pensioners. These records are available at most major research libraries.

Service and Pension Files
The preservation of all federal records is the responsibility of the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) in Washington, DC. While military records fall under this category, not all military records are kept in Washington. Some military records are stored in the National Personnel Records Center (NPRC) located in St. Louis, Missouri. (See also information at Ancestry.com about the recent online release of the Civil War Pension Index.)

As a rule of thumb, military records from the twentieth century can be found at the NPRC, and military records dated before 1900 can be found in the National Archives in Washington, DC. The tables included below detail exactly which records are available and where they can be found.

National Archives and Records Administration: Military Service Records

Service Branch        Rank             Dates of Service

Volunteers                                           1775-1902

Army                           Officers           1789-June 1917
                                    Enlisted           1789-31 Oct. 1912

Navy                           Officers           1798-1902
                                    Enlisted           1798-1885

Marine Corps             Officers            1789-1895
                                    Enlisted           1789-1895

Coast Guard                                        1791-1919*

Confederate States                              1861-65

Pension files (all claims)                     1775-1916

*Including service to earlier versions of coast guard

1.The National Archives does not do research for an individual. When the proper information is supplied, the Archives will provide photocopies of records for a fee.

2. To obtain these photocopies, submit standard NATF Form 80, on which you identify the records you seek. Form 80 can be obtained from:

 

General Reference Branch (NNRG)
National Archives and Records Administration
8th and Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20408

National Personnel Records Center (NPRC): Military Personnel Records

Service Branch   Rank        Earliest Service Dates

Air Force                 Officers      25 Sept. 1947
                                Enlisted      25 Sept. 1947

Army                      Officers      Separated 1 Jul. 1917
                                Enlisted      Separated 12 Nov. 1912

Navy                      Officers      Separated 1 Jan. 1903
                               Enlisted      Separated 1 Jan. 1886

Marine Corps         Officers      Separated 1 Jan. 1905
                                Enlisted      Separated 1 Jan. 1905

Coast Guard           Officers      Separated 1 Jan. 1898
                                Enlisted      Separated 1 Jan. 1898

1. These records may only be obtained by the individual, a legal representative of the individual, or a family member with written permission of the individual. If the individual has passed away, a family member can obtain the records by proving relationship to the deceased.

2. Between 16 million and 18 million army and air force records held in St. Louis were destroyed by fire in 1973. Alternate sources can be used to reconstruct any destroyed records, but the reconstruction may not be as complete as the original.

3. To obtain a copy of any records that do exist, the individual or legal representative must submit Standard Form 180, Request Pertaining to Military Records, for non-genealogical requests, and OR NA Form 13043 for genealogical requests. This form is available from the National Personnel Records Center (Military Personnel Records) at 9700 Page Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63132.

   Terry and Jim Willard hosted the ten-part PBS series "Ancestors." They have researched their genealogy fifteen generations back on both sides.

Please go on Step 12: Land Records and click here

In Step 1, we encouraged beginning genealogists to start their project at the best point—with the information they could remember about their family. Beginners were encouraged to ask themselves basic questions about each significant event in their lives and in the lives of their immediate family. These basic questions are: who, what, where, when, and why—the cornerstones of good genealogical research. Once this information is recorded on note cards, pedigree charts, family group sheets, and a research log (the "tools" of the genealogist), the beginner is ready to move to step two-looking for information that is close at hand.

It is amazing how much family information can be discovered by taking a very short, inexpensive trip. Actually, beginners may not even have to leave home because "generations" of information might be resting in their own attic or basement. Since we had no real genealogical treasures in our home, we began our search by taking a short trip to Jim's parent's home.

It began with a telephone conversation in 1968. While talking with Jim's mother about our new hobby, we asked if she might have any information at her home that would be useful. Specifically, we were hoping there might be an old family Bible with names and dates hand-written on the inside jacket. These dates would be records of births, deaths, and marriages that had occurred in the family over the years. We were taking a local history course as part of our undergraduate studies and had learned that many families followed this practice in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. Our professor, an amateur genealogist, indicated that a family Bible was one of the real treasures of family history; any student whose family had one would get a bonus grade by bringing it to class. Our concern was not so much the grade as it was the information we might gather.

We were informed, though, that there was no family Bible, at least that she knew of, but that two boxes in the basement might have something useful in them. When we sat down with the boxes we discovered more valuable information than we had dreamed possible. Armed with our pedigree charts and family group sheets, we spent four rewarding hours pouring over the contents of those two boxes.

While your experience will be different, here are examples of what we found and how it all proved useful in our research. In this discussion we will begin with the obvious items and then move through to less obvious ones.

The contents of the boxes had been divided between family sides, so items from Jim's father's family were in one and Jim's mother's family in the other. In the box containing records of Jim's paternal family, the first items that proved useful were birth certificates of his grandparents. These documents yielded another generation of names. In addition, the place of birth was given which provided a valuable clue to the marriage location of their parents. Birth certificates are common sources that one can find around the house and are one of the most valuable primary sources a genealogist can find.

A second major find (and another primary document) in this box was Jim's great-grandfather's will. It was a simple document, yet one that named his wife, all of his children, and the location of his home and property. It also named two more people in a preceding generation, filling in more of the blanks on Jim's pedigree chart. Likewise, names were filling in on a family group record for another family.

We also discovered Jim's grandfather's hand-written business ledger, used for one of the businesses he had owned in his lifetime. While this ledger provided no genealogical information, it did place his grandfather in a particular place at a particular time. More importantly, he wrote notes on the pages, almost in diary format, where he commented on events such as family births, local politics, world happenings, the weather, and even his observations on prevailing business practices. This information gave us insight into Jim's grandfather's personality, provided much anecdotal material for the family history we were pursuing, and began to "flesh in" the project.

Also in the box were Jim's father's high school report cards. Again, while this did not provide us with genealogical information we were not already aware of, these progress reports did name his parents with their signatures, and listed the address the family was living at each year. This last clue could prove useful in leading to other sources such as property records or census information.

The final items in Jim's paternal keepsake box included property deeds, old newspaper clippings containing articles of interest to the family, military discharge papers, and, of course, pictures. (A future column will discuss these sources in greater length.)

The box containing items from Jim's mother's family proved equally rewarding. Her parents had been emigrants from Quebec, Canada, and this one significant difference from his father's family led to many different items in the box. Perhaps the most significant find in the maternal storage box was his grandfather's application for naturalization. As with many immigrants during the first decades of the twentieth century, his grandfather wanted to become an American citizen. His application listed his full name, wife's name, living children, occupation, date and place of birth (the most significant clue), and signature. This one document told us more about Jim's grandparents than we knew up to that point, and ultimately led us to several more generations of information.

Since his grandparents were Catholic, there were also some religious items that provided clues for us to follow. Among these were burial mass cards—small documents, similar to obituaries that are distributed at the funeral mass held for the individual. Information on these cards note the deceased spouse, children (if relevant), and even parents' names. These proved to be a real asset in compiling family group sheets on Jim's great aunts and uncles. Other helpful items of a religious nature were baptismal, confirmation, and marriage certificates. These documents were created by the priest at the time of the event and in some cases listed parents' names and addresses at the time of the event.

One other item of note in the box was a train ticket. While seemingly unimportant at first, it turned out to be a ticket purchased by Jim's grandparents for their honeymoon trip to Old Orchard Beach, Maine, just after the turn of the century. It so happened that Jim's grandfather got off the train while it was stopped for water about sixty miles from their destination. He responded to an advertisement for employment, took the job, and secured housing for he and his bride—they didn't continue any further. Forty years and sixteen children later, they finally made it to Old Orchard.

These boxes proved to be an invaluable wealth of information for us in beginning our genealogical project. We derived individual or family data on seventy-one different relatives/ancestors from these two boxes. While some of the information was piecemeal at best, there were enough clues to lead to other potential sources.

The process of uncovering one clue and following it to additional information is the essence of doing genealogical research. While your experience will be different from ours, we hope you uncover items that will benefit your research. Listed below are additional items that you might find around your home or a family member's home. Review the list we have provided and use it as a guide whenever the opportunity presents itself.

Valuable home sources:
Letters. Some family boxes have one or more packets of letters. These letters may yield some valuable insight into the relationships of two or more people. Even if there is no genealogical information, reading letters written by an ancestor can provide a unique glimpse into that person's world and his or her personality.

Scrapbooks. Some of the most interesting and useful information can be found in these momentos that so many people keep. While they may not contain direct genealogical evidence, they do provide documentation of certain events in that person's life such as athletics, vacations, and entertainment. These certainly provide a unique peek into one's life and add wonderful anecdotes to a family history.

Military memorabilia. Military records are a major source of genealogical data and will be covered in length in a later column. Here we are referring to items that may have been saved because of their unique or emotional value. Items such as group pictures, weapons, uniforms, or unit histories put an individual at a particular place and time. This information could lead to further supporting evidence.

School records. We mentioned report cards earlier, but there are other school-related records that may prove valuable. Examples include registration papers that name parents, school yearbooks with pictures, a student essay written by your relative, certificates of achievement, diplomas, etc. Again, all such materials give the genealogist a look into the world of the individual being researched.

Licenses. Some family memorabilia may contain old driver's licenses, professional licenses, or hunting/fishing licenses. Any of these make interesting sources.

Keepsakes. Some potentially helpful items may not be stored away but are actually prominently displayed in one's home. We have seen jewelry passed down from parent to child-each with its own story. Some have engravings that provide a very valuable clue to the owner. Likewise, we have seen furniture built by an ancestor and kept for generations; furniture built from wood taken from an old family home; mirrors with each generation of ownership inscribed on the back; and numerous other examples of useful household items that are valuable to the genealogist.

Genealogy is all about clues, and there is no better source for these clues than within the home. We have provided a list but remember, this is only a suggestion. It is by no means the only list a beginner should refer to. The important thing is to be creative. Imagine what might be around your home, utilize what you have, keep records on your note cards, pedigree charts, and family group sheets, and be certain to record the source of your information on your research log. Above all, have fun. Genealogy is a hobby that provides great pleasure.

    Terry and Jim Willard hosted the ten-part PBS series "Ancestors." They have researched their genealogy fifteen generations back on both sides.

Please go on Step 3: Living Sources or click here

For centuries, genealogy was an oral tradition among the peoples of the world. In virtually every region, tribe, or clan, at least one person had the responsibility of memorizing the genealogy of the group, sharing it when necessary (at a birth or marriage, for example), and passing the genealogy on to the next generation. Quite often, the individual entrusted with this duty was a highly respected member of the community.

While this tradition may not continue in much of the western world today, we are fortunate that vestiges of this practice have survived in most families regardless of their ethnic heritage. Usually at least one person in every family (referred to as a gatekeeper or flamekeeper) knows a significant amount of that family's history. These people are perhaps the best source of a family's genealogical information.

In Step Three we will suggest ways that the beginning genealogist can utilize this outstanding source of information. We realize that some families do not have a "flamekeeper" and we want to share some tips on gathering information from other family members even if they feel they know little about the familyÍs history. Also, we will suggest some methods of gathering information from people who are not a direct part of your family, yet who may prove valuable in providing information for your research.

There are six basic methods of collecting information from your family members or others who may have information useful to your project. Each of these will be examined in detail throughout this article.

• Formal personal interview
• Informal personal interview
• Telephone interview
• Letter writing
• Querying
• Electronic correspondence

Formal Personal Interview
While this title sounds somewhat stuffy, we are referring to a process where your primary goal is meeting with a family member to gather information. There are several books on the market that cover this topic, including How To Tape Instant Oral Biographies (New York: Guarionex Press, 1992) by Bill Zimmerman, but the basic rules are the same. First, be certain to contact the person you wish to interview well in advance. Explain the nature of your project and the type of information you are seeking. This is especially important if you will be interviewing someone with whom you have had little or no contact in the past. The person being interviewed must be comfortable with you and the topic(s). In our own experience we had several opportunities to interview my paternal grandmother, but she was never comfortable discussing her family's past. Unfortunately, she would not supply us with any information on her father's family-the one we needed most at the time.

Second, take the time to be well prepared before the actual interview. Make certain you are clear in your own mind of the information you hope to gather from the interview. Time spent in preparation will pay off in the long run. It is a good idea to write down the questions you plan on asking.

Third, make the interview session as comfortable and relaxing as possible. Do not jump right into the questions; take time to talk. Show the person the equipment you might be using (such as tape recorders, video cameras, etc.) and make sure they are not intimidated by it.

Fourth, give the person ample time to answer the question you have asked, and do not interrupt if at all possible. Should they mention something you had not thought of before, make note of it and go back to it later. Also, have a time limit in mind and adhere to that limit. Conversations such as this can be tiring, especially for an older person. Try to schedule another session rather than continue beyond a reasonable point.

Remember that peoplesÍ memories are not infallible. Confirm the information you gather in one of these interviews with vital records whenever possible. Also, record the specifics of the interview on your research log. The interview is a source of information just like a book and should be noted accordingly.

Informal Personal Interview
The informal interview is our favorite means of gathering information from family members because the opportunity presents itself so often. Every family gathering becomes a potential source of information. After a while, family members know of your interest in genealogy and will bring new information with them to these gatherings. This has worked well for us because we come from large families and the informal interviews have allowed us to remain current with births, marriages, and deaths of cousins and second cousins, even those from different generations. We carry copies of our family group sheets and ask an individual from a particular family group to look over the sheet and provide us with any updates.

Obviously, family reunions are the best type of family gathering because they present the opportunity to see family members you may not have seen for some time. But weddings, holidays, baptisms, and visits offer the same potential. As with any information gathering session, the better prepared you are the more success you will experience. Remember to record the source in your research log.

Telephone Interview
Of course, it is not always possible to visit someone in person for the purpose of gathering genealogical information. Therefore, it is recommended that you use the telephone as a means of conducting the interview. In this case, it is extremely important that you be well prepared. First and foremost, it is a good idea to introduce yourself in advance to the person you will be interviewing and let them know what you want to do. Advance work is vital. If the person is the least bit uncomfortable, they may hang up on you or decline an interview and a very good source of information will be lost. In every other respect, the telephone interview is identical to the personal interview. Remember to record the telephone interview as the source of information in your research log and to verify any information you gather against corroborating evidence such as vital records.

A beginning genealogist sometimes overlooks another aspect of telephoning. If the family name you are researching is unique, it can prove beneficial to call people with the same name listed in the phone book that live in the area you are researching. On numerous occasions we have heard from students who have had considerable luck doing this. While there is the chance the person will tell you they are not interested in getting involved, they may also know information about the family you are researching, or may know of someone in their family who is doing research and provide you with contact information. An excellent source of addresses and phone numbers of people who share the name you are researching can be found on-line at Web sites such as http://www.whowhere.com.

Letter Writing
For years, writing letters has been the main source for genealogists trying to gather information, whether from family members or a county courthouse. While people may not write as many letters as they used to, letter writing is still an integral part of the data gathering process. The person receiving the request has time to consider your questions and to respond. Of course, there is no guarantee they will respond, but if you follow the guidelines listed below you will increase the likelihood of getting a response.

1. Above all, be courteous. Any letter that could be considered curt, rude, or demanding is certain to be thrown into the trash. Also, if possible, type your letter. If you do write in pen, print the letter. A hand-written request in pencil is unlikely to be read.

2. Be inclusive. Take the time to identify yourself and to explain your project and the reasons for requesting information. This will make the recipient feel connected to you and your project.

3.Be specific. Make your questions to the point and do not ask for too much information at one time.

4. Be thoughtful. Include a self-addressed, stamped envelope with your request. This will increase the chance of getting a response.

5. Be thorough. Keep a letter-writing log in which you note the recipientÍs name, the date the letter was sent, and the date a response was received.

6. Be prompt. When you receive a reply, answer immediately with a thank you note or follow-up letter.

When writing to a local, county (parish), state, or national office to request some type of vital record (birth, marriage, divorce, death, etc.), the following guidelines will make the task easier and more productive:

1. Determine the correct address of the office and department you wish to contact. Numerous books available through your public library will provide addresses for virtually every records office in the United States and abroad. You can also go on-line to locate information on addresses, costs, and even the electronic availability of records for numerous jurisdictions throughout the United States and the world. Find the exact address before sending your request to avoid having your letter buried in a dead letter file somewhere.

2. Determine the correct fee the office charges for the service you are requesting. The same sources used to provide the address should provide the cost for various records. Always enclose a check or money order for the exact amount; never send cash with your request.

3. Finally, provide specific information for each person you are seeking records about. This information should include:

a. the specific record you seek
b. full name of the person whose record is being requested
c. sex and race
d. parents' names in full with mother's maiden name
e. day, month, and year of known events in the person's life
f. full place name where known events occurred (town, county, state)
g. reason you are requesting the record
h. your relationship to the person whose record is being requested.

Letter writing will always be an important aspect of gathering genealogical information. Probably the best advice is to put yourself in the position of the individual receiving the request. What information would you need in a letter to process a request?

Querying
Another traditional method of gathering genealogical information is called querying. There are two possible approaches to this method. First, write down what is known about the individual and what you wish to learn. Be brief and as specific as possible. Mail your request(s) to a magazine or newspaper that publishes such queries. If you wonder which publications include queries, ask for the genealogy collection at your local library and browse through some of the publications your library receives and send your queries to one of them. In some cases, a person who has information will contact you directly. In other cases, the magazine or newspaper will publish responses in future issues. Either way, a well-worded query can produce exciting results and often put you in touch with someone who is researching a similar line.

In this day of high speed Internet connections and the explosion of on-line information, posting a query on the Web has become a leading method of locating specific information or leading you to someone who might have useful information. This method can take various forms but the two most useful are:

1. Posting your query on a bulletin board. Several companies and genealogical societies maintain bulletin boards for this purpose. Visit the site periodically to see if there have been any responses. The new FamilyHistory.com Web site is specifically targeted for such queries in a message board format. It is a free service dedicated to sharing family history data.

2. Maintaining your own Web site. Many people have constructed their own family Web site where other family members or visitors can leave information relevant to a research project.

Electronic Correspondence
As discussed previously, the use of computers has greatly aided the task of the family historian. It is safe to say that the computer, with its organizing software, research CD-ROMs, and ability to connect easily and quickly to the World Wide Web has become the single best tool for todayÍs genealogist. But it is important to remember that the Web is not a substitute for good solid research; it is simply an aid. But if used properly, it can open the door to unimagined information. All the admonitions listed for previous means of gathering data apply.

The task of gathering family information is not an easy one. But using all the resources available greatly increases the chances of building a solid genealogy

.

    Terry and Jim Willard hosted the ten-part PBS series "Ancestors." They have researched their genealogy fifteen generations back on both sides.

Please go on Step 4: Beginning Your Library Research or click here

By now you have probably filled out pedigree charts and family group sheets containing genealogical information about your immediate family. You have looked around your home to find other information that could be added to your basic forms, and you have interviewed older family members to fill in more of the blanks in your research. Now, believe it or not, the fun begins.

You are ready to search for information about your family outside the confines of your memory–you are ready to go to a library. In Step 4, we will discuss two important considerations: what preparations you should make before leaving home, and what to look for once you arrive at the library.

Before Leaving Home
First, prepare by compiling a list of all research centers and libraries near your home that might prove useful to you. This list should include your local public library, your nearest family history center (more on these in a later article), your local historical society, genealogical society, ethnic society, even a nearby college library.

Now decide which of these centers you want to visit and call ahead to find out what their days and hours of operation are. We encourage you to ask the following questions:

1. Is there an orientation tour of the library and does one need to sign up in advance? These orientation sessions can save hours of valuable time by helping you learn what is available and where to find it. You will also meet a staff member who might be a good contact person to answer questions that may arise later.

2. Does the library have any special requirements? Some research facilities require a picture ID before allowing a researcher to enter. Others require visitors to be a member or resident before entry is granted.

3. Is it necessary to sign up in advance to use any special equipment such as microfilm readers, microfiche readers, or computers? Most research centers have limited equipment and their use is regulated. This is especially true at busy times such as school vacations.

4. Is parking available and what does it cost? Some libraries are located in the heart of a city and the only available parking is in a nearby garage that charges. If so, find out what the cost is and what alternatives are available.

5. Are there restaurants or cafes nearby? A good research session requires a clear mind, and working on an empty stomach is not conducive to a clear mind. If no eating facilities are in close proximity, plan on bringing a lunch.

6. Are laptops allowed in the library? Many researchers bring their laptops with them, but you should check first to find out what the library’s policy is on portable computers. If they are allowed, remember to carry all of your valuables with you when you leave your workspace.

After gathering this information, organize the genealogical data you have compiled thus far into a logical sequence. This will help you explain your information to someone who might not understand genealogy. The better you can describe what you have and what you are looking for, the better the librarian will be able to assist you. Good organization of your material also helps you have a better handle on where you have been and where you need to go.

Having your material with you also makes it easier to evaluate your research session. It is a good idea to have all of your material stored in something transportable. We have seen researchers with beautiful hand-embroidered bags, others with more traditional briefcases, and even some with boxes they roll along on a luggage carrier.

Most importantly, write down your research objectives–what facts you hope to uncover in your trip to the library. This does not need to be fancy, just a simple list of questions you hope to find the answers to. Here is a list we prepared some thirty years ago:

1. Who was Nana’s father? We know the family name is Jones.

2. Where were Nana and Gramp married? We think Turner, but we’re not sure.

3. Where were they living in 1900? 1910? 1920?

4. Are there any books on local history (Turner) that mention either of them?

Looking back on this list, the information we were after seems so basic. Yet we didn’t have the answers to these questions and, like all researchers, we had to start at the beginning. Be complete in compiling your own list of questions and be prepared to reevaluate them as your session progresses throughout the day. Finally, organize all the "tools" you will need to make your research trip productive. Included on this list are the following:

1. Pencils–It is always a good idea to use a pencil in all of your preliminary research. Some libraries require researchers to use only pencil. This cuts down on stray pen marks that appear on the pages of research material, which are impossible to remove.

2. Reading glasses–Some of the material that one discovers can be difficult to read even under the best conditions. A good pair of reading glasses can simplify this task enormously.

3. Magnifying glass–Much of the material is difficult to read even with good light and a good pair of glasses. A magnifying glass or magnifying bar can help in these situations.

4. Blank research forms–Once you discover useful material, you need an ample supply of forms to record this information. Having a good supply with you ensures that you will not have to write on little slips of scrap paper only to have to redo everything once you get home.

5. Tissues–Libraries can be very dusty places. Need we say more? (Terry actually rates libraries by the number of tissues she uses during a research session. A good library is a "three tissue.")

6. Change–It is amazing how many nickels, dimes, and quarters photocopy machines can devour. Usually, libraries do not provide change and it can be frustrating to run out of change just when you need it most. In many libraries it is necessary to purchase a photocopy card. The machines that dispense these require change or bills so be certain to have enough of both.

At the Library
At the library we can provide two main points that are relevant to your research: the general considerations that apply to any research facility, and what materials you can expect to find once you get to the library.

Once you arrive at the library, there are some considerations to keep in mind. First, in many libraries, even public libraries, the people who work in the genealogy section are volunteers. Remember that they are there to guide you in your research, not to do your research for you. The best courtesy you can show them is to have your materials organized and easily understandable. Judy Perpente, a retired media specialist who now volunteers at a family history center in Sarasota, Florida asks that researchers "be organized–have something like a pedigree chart ready to show the librarian what it is you are looking for."

Take advantage of the library’s orientation tour if they have one. Learn what materials they have and where they are located. Also, learn how to use special equipment such as photocopy machines, microfiche readers, microfilm readers, reader-copiers, and even computerized card catalogs.

Ease your way into the library. Take the time to familiarize yourself with special holdings, rooms devoted to local history, etc. Also, allow plenty of time for your research trip. A truly successful trip may require a half-day or even a full day. Having to leave too soon can be a very frustrating experience. Finally, take breaks during your research session. A well placed breather, bathroom break, or lunch break can prove invaluable to your success.

When visiting your local library, there are certain sections of the genealogy department that you can expect to find. These include the following:

1. Local history–If the family you are researching came from the town in which the library is located, this collection will contain information you will turn to frequently.

2. Reference and Self-help Material–Here one can find excellent books such as The Source that will let you know how to proceed with a genealogical research project.

3. Genealogy magazines–This section would include the leading magazines such as Ancestry as well as periodicals from throughout the United States that would be useful if your research takes you outside your local area.

4. Published family histories–It is amazing how many families have been researched. In some communities, the local library has histories on some families that have lived in the area for some time.

5. General indexes–Some very useful sources have been indexed and these indexes offer the researcher an excellent starting point. Among these are census indexes, DAR indexes, soldier indexes for the Revolution, the War of 1812, the Civil War, etc.

6. Newspapers–An excellent source of genealogy material comes from local newspapers including obituaries and even published births and marriages. Some local newspapers have even been indexed and are easier to use.

7. Maps and gazetteers. Any research in a particular geographic area requires knowledge of the area. These maps and gazetteers provide that information.

When beginning research at your local library, we recommend the following basic guide to getting started. While no single approach can be said to be best, we have had luck with the following formula. First, start with the published family histories. If research has already been done on your family, you may find a great deal of information that you will benefit from. Turn to local histories next. Many have specific family information included in them, and some have genealogies on two or more generations of a particular family. Finally, utilize the collection of local newspapers to add information to your research.

Always document the information you find. Write the source material on your research log and record sources used in your log even if you do not find any information in them. Don’t allow yourself to be sidetracked–it is easy to be pulled away from your objectives. We have seen many research sessions wasted in tracking the wrong person or the wrong family. This is especially true when one encounters a book on a famous person who shares the same family name being researched. Also, be patient and persevere. Remember that you can search for hours before locating a single piece of valuable information, so don’t give up too soon. Have realistic expectations. When developing your research objectives, make sure they can be accomplished. In other words, have measurable outcomes in mind. Do not expect to gather information on ten generations in ten minutes. And above all, have fun. Genealogy is a hobby that is about enjoyment.

    Terry and Jim Willard hosted the ten-part PBS series "Ancestors." They have researched their genealogy fifteen generations back on both sides.

Please go on Step 5: At the Library or click here

While discussing ancestors at a family reunion, attending a genealogical conference, and using the Internet for genealogical research can be very exciting, there is just something special about a research trip to a good library.

In Step 4 we discussed getting ready for this trip. We covered such items as preparing your research objectives and preparing yourself for your visit to the library. In this article we will explore the different types of research libraries available to you, and how you can most benefit from your visit.

One of the most unique aspects of genealogical research is the variety of libraries which house a vast array of information. In some, one can find reel after reel of census microfilms; in others, shelves of published family histories; in others, extensive information relating to the history of that area; and, in still others, all of these resources together under one roof. In our own research, we have used many different repositories and we would like to introduce you to some of them.

Libraries
•Local public libraries–We have used numerous local public libraries and have found that all contain varying amounts of information. Usually they have a very strong collection of books, maps, and vital records relating to their own communities. Their reference librarians can also tell you who the local genealogy experts are and how to contact them.

•Local historical society libraries–Society libraries have excellent information relating to the community, especially their collections of pictures, artifacts, maps, clothing, and other items of local interest. This unique information adds texture to your research as you learn more about the community (and possibly even the homes) in which your ancestors resided.

•Local genealogical society libraries–If your ancestors lived in one area for a long period of time, or were early settlers in that area, there may be unique research available on the families from that town, such as the only copy of research done by a local historian. If you are fortunate enough to find such a treasure, it will save many hours of research.

•County public libraries–In many communities the county maintains the public library. These are excellent places for research as they have information relating to all the towns within their boundary. Since many of our ancestors married someone from the "next town," a county library often has all the necessary resources under one roof. For example, the Allen County Public Library in Fort Wayne, Indiana, has evolved from a county library to a world class genealogical research center.

•County historical society libraries–These are similar to their local counterparts, except they have information on the entire county. They also contain displays and dioramas that make the history of their county come alive.

•State libraries–The state library (located in the state’s capital city) can be a truly valuable source of genealogical information. Quite often, we have located secondary sources of vital records for all the communities within the state. This type of information can prove useful in those cases where ancestors migrated between towns within a state. You can track them from the comfort of a good library chair. In some states, the state archives are located in the same complex as the state library. Thus, primary source research can be conducted easily in the archives after locating a secondary reference to a particular life event in the library.

•State historical societies–Many states have a state historical society, which house materials of interest to both historians and to genealogists. They often contain excellent collections and are located in historic buildings.

•Regional research libraries–There are several regional libraries, but one excellent example is the New England Historic Genealogical Society located in Boston, Massachusetts. NEHGS, or "Hist-Gen" as it is often called, houses a tremendous collection of materials that relate to New England research. This facility is a necessary visit for those who can trace their roots to New England.

•Ethnic genealogical society libraries–Virtually every ethnic group in the United States has created and maintains a research facility, which houses materials relating to that particular ethnic group. One in particular is worthy of note: the American-Canadian Genealogical Society (ACGS) Library in Manchester, New Hampshire. This library has an outstanding collection relating to Franco-American, Acadian, and French-Canadian genealogy.

•National libraries–As one can imagine, there are libraries on a much larger scale than any mentioned thus far and these are the national libraries. Two in particular deserve mention and are worthy of inclusion on your list of places to visit. The first is the National Archives located in Washington, D.C. It contains a huge collection of materials relating to all aspects of genealogy. Central to these materials are Federal records such as census, military, and public land records. The other national library is the Family History Library located in Salt Lake City, Utah. This library houses the world’s leading collection of primary and secondary source material, much of which is available on microforms and on loan for use at its family history centers located throughout the United States.

This sampling represents virtually every type of research facility you might use in your research. Being presented with such variety can be intimidating, however, one characteristic should ease some of this intimidation–all of these facilities share certain features. Once you become acquainted with these common features, your research trips will become much less daunting and more productive.

The most important of these features is the division of collections into sections. Once you become familiar with these sections and how to use them, your task of locating relevant research material becomes much easier. Unfortunately, these libraries do not use the same numbering systems. It is imperative that you become familiar with whatever numbering system a library uses, whether it is Dewey Decimal, Library of Congress, or a unique system used only by one library.

General Reference Section
When you are ready to begin your research, the best place to start is in the general reference section. Included in this section are the books you need to maximize your time. It is recommended that your first few hours in a library be spent in this section. Here you will find the "how to" books which will point you in the right direction. All libraries have these volumes and you should use those that are best suited for your own research. For example, a place to start is Ancestors: A Beginner’s Guide to Family History and Genealogy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997) by Jim and Terry Willard with Jane Wilson. Other general reference books that should be consulted include:

Directory of Family Associations. Bentley, Elizabeth Petty, 1991.

Ancestry’s Redbook: American State, County & Town Sources. Eichholz, Alice, editor. Orem: Ancestry, 1989.

The Source: A Guidebook of American Genealogy. Szucs, Loretto, and Luebking, Sandra, editors. Orem: Ancestry, 1997.

Using sources such as these will save you countless hours of research.

Books that provide historical maps of geographical areas you are researching should also be consulted, as well as those that list all the published family histories available in a particular library. You can also find books that will help you use the computer, and others that will help you organize your work so that others can benefit from your research.

Family Histories
All libraries have a section dedicated to their collection of published family histories. Here you may discover a volume dedicated entirely to the family name you are researching. While the odds of finding your own name and genealogy in such a book are quite slim, you may find some valuable clues that will aid your research. These volumes are usually displayed in alphabetical order by the name of the principal family covered in the book. Also, some libraries have an index of all the families covered in these volumes–in addition to the name or names listed in the title. Find out if such a volume exists and where it is located.

State Collections
Another section in most county, state, and national libraries is one devoted to published materials relating to other states. Here you can do some general research on a state where your ancestors may have lived. This section can give you a better idea of what sources might exist and where they can be found, thus saving you valuable hours later. Remember, you are always a detective trying to gather as many clues as possible. Even general sources on a state you may never have visited can provide some of these valuable clues.

Military
One section that has proved very useful in our research was the section on the various wars in which America has been involved. These sections are usually arranged in chronological order, beginning with the earliest conflicts and continuing to the present. The volumes might provide a list of the pensioners from a particular war, a list of all the individuals who served in a particular war, where they were from and which unit(s) they served in, even regimental histories that detail where the regiment served during the war. Other valuable resources in this section are the journals and indexes for patriotic societies such as the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR). These sources represent significant research that satisfies admission requirements to one of these societies. The submitter may have worked on one of the lines you are researching, thus saving you considerable time.

Society Newsletters & Publications
Most libraries subscribe to a variety of publications. Newsletters and magazines can be a source of general and specific information relevant to your research. Many publications allow readers to submit queries, so if you have encountered a "stone wall" from a particular area of your research, perhaps a query to a society specializing in that area would prove useful. A publication such as Ancestry Magazine can prove useful to beginning and advanced researchers.

Federal Materials
Some libraries have sources from the Federal government, especially indexes to various censuses. After searching published family histories, most researchers turn to Federal censuses. Fortunately, some libraries–especially the bigger ones–have the microfilm of the actual census. In such a case, you can go from the index to the microfilm room very easily to follow up on your families.

Computers
It is difficult to imagine doing genealogical research today without the use of a computer. Most libraries have computers that are beneficial to genealogists in two ways. First, the library might have a collection of research on CDs that are available for use. Secondly, they may have computers connected to the Internet. You can do considerable research using these machines. In either case, the amount of time one can spend at the computer is usually restricted. Most libraries with computers require patrons to sign up for their use in advance.

Nothing is more rewarding than planning a good library research session, arriving at the library to pursue the plan, and discovering the information you were seeking. Remember to make note of all the source materials you consult in your research log–this log will prove invaluable later. And, by the way, it’s OK to give a little yelp when you find one of those missing ancestors. This serves as a reminder to all the other people doing research that perseverance pays off!

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    Terry and Jim Willard hosted the ten-part PBS series "Ancestors." They have researched their genealogy fifteen generations back on both sides.

Please go on Step 6: Secondary Source Research or click here

Quite often our students ask us what makes genealogy such a fascinating hobby. We used to think the answer was simple–the pleasure of learning about your past, who you are, and where you came from. Now, after years of roaming the globe and countless hours of poring over the dusty pages of books long out of print, we realize the answer is even simpler than that. More than anything, genealogy offers excitement.

There is an indescribable rush, a thrill if you will, when you finally locate that long-lost ancestor. This rush is the pay-off for those long unrewarding hours of research. It soon makes those anguishing hours nothing more than a distant memory.

For decades, behavioral scientists have known that the most powerful reward for shaping human behavior is one that is meaningful and motivating yet irregular in its occurrence–similar to the payoffs in genealogical research. On some days, there will be no new information discovered, no reward. On other days, there is a new discovery every hour. This is what makes genealogy so stimulating and so rewarding.

As you know, there are many possible ways to get these payoffs and we have introduced you to several general possibilities in the earlier articles. In Step 6 we will show you a specific way to discover the joy of genealogy: how to use compiled secondary sources as tools in your research.

By definition, compiled secondary sources are written records of events created long after the event occurred. Usually they are copies of the original records or the compilation of information taken from a variety of sources. Also, in this the age of the World Wide Web, a great deal of compiled secondary information is appearing online. Regardless of whether you use a compiled source in a library or at your computer, it is important to understand two fundamental rules of using compiled secondary sources:

1. Document your sources. When you consult any source, be certain to write the identifying information about that source on your research log. This should be done even if you do not find any useful data.

2. Verify any information you find in compiled secondary sources. Someone working from an original prepared these sources and errors may have been made while transferring information from one source to another. Use the compiled source to lead you to the original source, which establishes proof of the event.

With these simple caveats in mind, we’ll take a closer look at some of the compiled secondary sources you might encounter, and illustrate how best to use these sources. You will remember from an earlier article that we recommend beginners check published family histories first, then turn to local histories–that is where we will begin this discussion.

Published Family Histories
These compiled secondary sources often yield a complete history for one line of your research. As with any book, they can take several different formats. Your job is to determine two points about any such book you discover. First, does it contain information relevant to your project? Second, how is the book structured and how do you interpret the information in the book?

To determine if it contains relevant information, first check the index and see if the name for which you are searching appears. There are times when several possible entries are present. If you were looking for a name such as Andrew Grant, for example, there might be as many as a dozen entries. See if the index offers any additional information for each primary entry such as a place name, event, or essential date associated with that person. Remember that some family histories have multiple indexes–a family name index, an other name index, even a places index. If you are searching for an individual with a common name, you might find it useful to consult the other indexes for a cross-reference.

For example, if Andrew Grant’s wife was Lucinda Ammon, you might find her listed in the other names index, thus narrowing the number of possible pages you need to consult. Likewise, if your couple resided in Monongahela City, you might find it in the place name index, again providing you with a cross-reference to narrow your search of the book. Obviously, the ideal situation would be for you to find all three–Andrew Grant, Lucinda Ammon, and Monongahela City–appearing on the same page. When you are this fortunate, you will usually discover the people you are seeking.

Unfortunately, in some published family histories there is no index. While this is not common, it does occur and you usually encounter such a book when you are the most desperate for information–almost the Murphy’s Law of genealogical research. Should this happen to you, be patient. Review the contents of the book by skimming the pages looking for clues associated with the name you are researching. Patience and perseverance can yield results but remember that a book without an index can be one of the most frustrating situations you will encounter.

As for the second point–understanding the structure of the text and how to best interpret it–the following are tips that will help you understand some of the more common elements of compiled secondary sources you will encounter in your research.

Organization
When you encounter a family history, take the time to skim the contents to determine how the work is organized. Who is the key person? What format does the book use? When was it published? Who is the author? Is there an index? These questions help in entering the information into your research log. In no time at all, books of this type will seem very familiar to you and you will become comfortable using them.

Numbering Systems
Virtually all published genealogies use a numbering system to identify the individuals in the book and to show how they fit into the complete family history. You need to identify the key person and you need to familiarize yourself with the numbering system that extends from this key person. Most compiled family histories employ a system that resembles an outline. The key person is assigned the number 1 and each descendant is assigned the next available number. If you are fortunate enough to locate one of your ancestors, or even yourself, in a published family history, using the book’s numbering system may lead you back in time and provide several generations of data. Remember to verify this information by checking the relevant primary record.

Superscripting
One of the most common features of a compiled history is superscripting. As with any work involving research, footnotes indicate where the information came from. In family histories, footnotes may also contain useful information about an individual that just did not fit into the text or was perhaps added later. Be sure to read any footnotes that pertain to your ancestor. Superscripting is also used to identify the generation an individual fits into. When you see superscripts in this context, it informs you of how many generations an individual is removed from the key person. In some cases, an entire paternal lineage is displayed in parentheses following the person’s name.

Abbreviations
When you first encounter a compiled family history, you will be struck by the variety and number of abbreviations. Abbreviations save space and avoid the tedium of writing the same information over and over. Unfortunately, there is no true standard for what they mean. As a result, you need to familiarize yourself with what they mean in a particular work. Usually there is a guide to these abbreviations (and other symbols used in the text) to refer to when you encounter any new or questionable entries in the text.

Town & County Histories
If any of your families were among the early settlers of the United States, or if they were among the early settlers of a particular community, town, county, or state, histories could be invaluable compiled secondary sources. In virtually every village, town, city, county, or state, someone has written and published a history of that area.

These histories serve two very important functions. First, they provide historical context for your family even if they are not mentioned by name in the book. A good local history can give you insight into the day-to-day life of your ancestors and allow you a glimpse of what the townspeople did for work, where they shopped, how they farmed, even how much they paid for taxes. Second, local histories often provide genealogies for many families who lived in the community at a particular time. Some extend the genealogies of certain families down two, three, and even four generations from the settling couple. Other town histories will provide chronological listings of births, marriages, and/or deaths that may have occurred within that area. Such a reference provides a direct link to the original source.

The two libraries with the best collections of local histories are the Family History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. Many local libraries have guides in their reference sections that list the extensive holdings of these libraries. Also, if travel and research are in your plans, state libraries (usually located in the state’s capital city) have excellent collections of local histories for their state and usually those near them. It would be time well spent to plan a research trip to any state library.

Genealogical Dictionaries
Another type of useful source, especially for early settlers to a particular area, is the genealogical dictionary. In many regions, multi-volume books have been published on the settlers or important families of that region, which are presented in dictionary form and arranged alphabetically by family name.

Like published family histories, these dictionaries also utilize numerous abbreviations. Consult the beginning of the book to understand what these abbreviations mean.

One major shortcoming of these works is the frequent omission of information on female family members. While this is a hindrance, the information gained on the male family members will lead you to primary source material where you can find data on the women in the family. Be sure to check the card or computer catalog at the library for these general sources. It is also a good idea to check with the genealogy reference librarian. Once you have been pointed in the right direction, spend the time to thoroughly investigate this potentially valuable source.

Assorted Compiled Sources
The primary emphasis of this article has been on those compiled sources that can aid you the most in your quest for ancestors. Hopefully, one or more of these will prove useful to you. Should you not have any luck, however, there are additional compiled sources that might help you locate valuable data. These were discussed in Step 5 of this series, but let us list some of them here as a reminder:

• Family Association Newsletters
• Genealogical Society Newsletters
• Historical Society Publications
• Ethnic Society Publications
• Newspaper Obituaries
• Published Cemetery Inscriptions
• Biographies
• College Yearbooks

These auxiliary sources come with some cautionary notes, however. First, they can be difficult to use. In many respects they resemble any book that either has a poor index or no index at all. Also, they represent the type of research that requires many hours of work with little or no payoff. We advise beginners to turn to these sources only when all other sources have produced nothing. Use these sources as a break from your other research. When you accomplish one of your research objectives, turn to these other sources and pursue one of your difficult lines. This gives you some distance from the other types of material you are using and often gives you a different perspective when you turn to your next objective.

Doing genealogical research can be very demanding. There will be times when you will feel like the proverbial laboratory rat racing on your treadmill or wandering aimlessly through the maze that is the trail leading to our ancestors. But persevere! That elusive ancestor could be just around the corner.

    Terry and Jim Willard hosted the ten-part PBS series "Ancestors." They have researched their genealogy fifteen generations back on both sides.

Please go on Step 7: Primary Sources and Vital Records or click here

In the first six articles of this series, we have shown you how to get your genealogical project started and how to continue using information found around the home or obtainable from living relatives. We have also covered the essentials of library research–from getting organized for the research trip to using published secondary source materials in your research. We will now turn our attention to the nuts and bolts of genealogical research: the various primary sources, vital records, and other official documents. As is the case with all of us today (although not quite to the same extent), our ancestors left a paper trail. In addition to the documentation of the major life events (birth, marriage, and death), other events occurred which provide further documentation of their lives. They belonged to churches, went to school, served in the military, owned property, paid taxes, were counted in various censuses, and, when they died, left written instructions on how to dispose of their property. These various records, when used properly, tell the stories of the lives of our ancestors.

In future articles, we will help you learn to use these documents as you build your pedigree, fill in your family group sheets, and move toward a greater understanding of your progenitors. In the articles that focus on using the various types of records, we will define the meaning of each record type, discuss the various ways to access a copy of the record, and explain how to use each record once it is obtained. Our objectives are for the beginner to fully understand the wide variety of research records available and to feel comfortable using these records when researching.

Primary Sources
In this article, we will examine the most fundamental of all written records: primary source materials and vital records. A primary source is a record of an event written, spoken, or photo-graphed by an eyewitness to that event at or near the time the event occurred. Examples of primary source materials include:

• Letters
• Eyewitness newspaper accounts
• Ship passenger lists*
• Diaries
• Deeds* and other land ownership records
• Baptismal certificates
• Photographs of family reunions
• Business ledgers with notes in the margins
• Military records*
• Family Bibles with a listings of births, marriages, or family events
• Census records*
• Home videos
• Voice recordings, oral histories
• Immigration records*
• Wills*

(*This record type will be covered in more detail later in the series.)

Hopefully, you will have uncovered some of these materials from a close relative or as you looked around your house. Any of these examples could yield valuable genealogical information. It is from these sources that we often gain valuable insight into the personality of our ancestors. One of our most valued possessions is a business ledger written by Jim’s grandfather in the 1930s. At first glance it does not seem like much, but his comments and observations in the margins provide hints to his personality. Jim was only thirteen when his grandfather died and the ledger gives him a connection to the man he had previously known only as a youth. In one entry, Jim’s grandfather comments on Jim’s father’s reaction to a baseball glove he received as a present on his fourteenth birthday. This glimpse into the past is what makes primary source research so valuable. While it provides evidence of an event (as in the previous example, the entry was for 8 October 1931; the birth date can be implied to be 8 October 1917) it goes beyond the facts and fleshes in a relationship or a personality.

Primary sources, as beneficial as they are, still have potential shortcomings. In the PBS television series "Ancestors," records expert John Phillip Colletta uses the example of a baptismal record recorded on 31 February. Obviously, a situation such as this would require additional research. In your research log you should note the information exactly as it appears in the original source. Then you should add any other evidence you discover as well as an anecdotal footnote describing your opinion on the date of the event. Remember that an eyewitness can unintentionally distort his or her perception of an event. In our college psychology class, an individual burst in on the lecture and shot the professor. After the class had recovered from the very real shock caused by the mock attack, we were required to write a description of what we had witnessed. Amazingly, there was little similarity between accounts. This concept applies to any firsthand account of an event. They must be interpreted cautiously.

Vital Records
Vital records are records of life events important enough that some level of government acquires, organizes, and preserves them. While the term "vital records" is often applied to a wide variety of life events, family historians use the term to refer specifically to birth, marriage, divorce, and death events. Since at least the Middle Ages, governments have considered these events so significant that their occurrence is required by law to be recorded in some type of official ledger, generally accessible by the public. As a general rule, these records are maintained by the level of government closest to where the event actually took place. In most of the United States a clerk in the city, town, or county government maintains the records. And since the end of the nineteenth century, each state also records each of these events. These are maintained at the state’s capital by an office of vital records, vital statistics, etc. A good guideline to keep in mind is: If the event occurred before 1900, the local community would be the best place to seek the vital record; if the event occurred after 1900, either the local or state level would be a good place to start.

It is rare for the researcher to be able to view these records personally. Instead, a records request form must be completed, either at the appropriate office or by mail. After doing so, and as long as the necessary information is supplied, you will receive a copy of the record(s) requested. As you might expect, there are fees for these copies which vary from locality to locality. Some localities also distinguish between a "copy" and an "official copy"–the latter is impressed with a seal of the office.

The obvious problem in conducting vital records research is knowing where to go or where to write for the information. Fortunately, the solution is readily available from several prominent sources.

1. For those who enjoy library research, use the reference shelves of the genealogy section in your public library. There you will find several books, such as Ancestry’s Redbook: American State, County and Town Sources edited by Alice Eichholz, Ph.D., C.G., or The Source edited by Loretto Dennis Szucs and Sandra Hargreaves Luebking. Appendix F, "Where to write for vital records," lists the addresses and names of the offices that maintain these records.

2. For those who enjoy having a handy, inexpensive guide available in their own home, the U.S. Government Department of Health and Human Services publishes a handy little guide entitled "Where to Write for Vital Records: Births, Deaths, Marriages, and Divorces." This guide, available from the Government Printing Office (PHS 93 1142), is updated regularly and currently sells for $2.50.

3. For researchers who are Internet savvy, there are several Web sites dedicated to locating vital records, some of which are maintained directly by the level of government responsible for the vital records. These are best accessed by connecting to a general genealogy Web site such as Ancestry.com and following links to find the Web site of your desired locality. Another excellent site for learning how to get copies of vital records is http://www.vital rec.com.

Should you decide to write and request a copy of a vital record, there are some general guidelines you should follow:

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  • Indicate who you are with name, address, and phone number.
  • Indicate the type of record you are seeking–birth, death, marriage, divorce or death.
  • Supply as much information as possible about the person or persons involved in the event (their full names and any other identifying information). Be as thorough as possible.
  • Enclose your payment.

A. Determine the cost of the copy of the vital record you seek using one of the sources listed above.

B. Write your request letter as simply as possible.

C. Provide a self-addressed, stamped envelope.

D. Be patient and wait for a reply. It is not unusual for this process to take two or three letters to complete successfully.

Once you have located either a primary source document or a copy of a vital record, extract the information from it. Again, there are some important points to remember. As you copy the information from the record to your genealogical chart–pedigree chart or family group sheet–be certain to copy the information accurately. This copying process, known as transcription, is often where errors are made.

Copy the information exactly as it appears on the original source even if the information appears to be incorrect on the original. This is especially true of spelling. As mentioned earlier, copy the original and then make a footnote. If a census record shows the person to be WILLIARD, Charles Morse, then record it by that spelling. Then make a footnote to the effect that his name was spelled WILLARD (without the second "I") on all other documents.

Do not make assumptions about the data. If a birth date recorded in a family Bible appears as 2-12-94, enter it that way. Do not assume it is 12 February 1894, because it could also be 2 December 1794.

Whenever possible, attach a copy of the source document to your genealogical chart. In the future, should you decide to convert your research into a family history book, some of these documents would make excellent illustrations. Most importantly, record the source of your information everywhere you write the information. Most genealogists agree that the three general rules of research are:

1. Document your sources
2. Document your sources
3. Document your sources

If you follow this simple advice, anyone who sees your work in the future will know exactly where you discovered your information. Who knows? This could be next summer at a family reunion or a hundred and fifty years from now.

Records expert, John Phillip Colletta, describes records research as the "great fun of genealogy." Nothing is more rewarding than to see your ancestors’ names as they appear on a record that proves a connection you have sought for some time. All the discomfort of research–the eyes red from hours of reading difficult handwriting in bad lighting, the backaches from sitting long hours in uncomfortable chairs, the frustration of waiting for a copy of a birth certificate being sent from Anywhere, USA–quickly disappears the minute you discover another piece of your family puzzle.

   Terry and Jim Willard hosted the ten-part PBS series "Ancestors." They have researched their genealogy fifteen generations back on both sides.

Please go on Step 8: Census Records or click here

If you’ve chased your ancestors back more than a couple of generations, you no doubt have been amazed at how mobile they were. This mobility presents a problem for the modern genealogist–it is easy to lose the trail of ancestors as they moved from country to country or state to state. Fortunately, there are clues the genealogist can turn to when the trail seems to have gone cold.

Imagine being given a picture of one of your ancestor’s families. In the picture all the family members are grouped together with a description that includes names, ages, employment, addresses, even birth dates. This imaginary picture is not as far-fetched as it might seem–this is the type of extractable information included in census records.

In Step 8 of our series, we will examine federal census records and explain how to get the most from this source of genealogical information. We will define these records, explain how to use them in genealogical research, and detail where they can be found.

A census, according to Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, is "a periodic governmental enumeration of a population." Simply put, a government counts its inhabitants on a regular basis and records the totals. In the United States, both federal and state governments have conducted these "periodic enumerations." (For excellent coverage of all available census materials, refer to The Source: A Guidebook of American Genealogy, Rev. Ed., edited by Loretto Dennis Szucs and Sandra Hargreaves Luebking, SLC: Ancestry, 1997.)

The census has proven to be a boon to genealogists. Although census records were never intended to be genealogical records, few other records give us better leads as we track our ancestors. As a beginning genealogist, you will come to appreciate all that the various censuses have to offer. We encourage beginners to use federal census records as a starting point. The reasons for this recommendation are these: the federal census records–especially those since 1850–provide excellent material for the researcher, and this material, unlike its state counterparts, is readily available at most major public libraries. The federal census data from 1790 to 1870 is alphabetically indexed by family name and the indexes are available (individually by state) in printed form at most public libraries and electronically on CD-ROM or the Internet at Web sites such as Ancestry.com.

The first U.S. federal census was conducted in 1790, and a census has been conducted every ten years since then. From 1790 to 1840, the census takers asked few questions, thus limiting the value these records have for us today. Starting in 1850, however, both the number and scope of questions began to change. Enumerators were instructed, for example, to list the names, ages, and gender for all persons living in the house (prior censuses had listed only the names of the heads of household and a simple tabulation of broad age groups). Each succeeding census asked additional questions, and by the 1920 census twenty-nine questions were asked of each household.

Due to federal privacy laws, no federal records within a seventy-two year period are open to the public. Thus, the 1920 census is the most recent federal census available to researchers. (The 1930 census will be available after 2002.) One of the rules of sound genealogical research is to start with yourself and work backward in time, moving from the known to the unknown. If we apply this rule to census research, then 1920 is where you should start. In using this outstanding genealogical source, consider the following tips before you leave for your research trip:

•Write down as many facts as you know about the family or families you are researching. This should include names of family members, their respective ages, city and state where they resided in 1920, occupations, etc. Residence is especially critical in locating census records.

•Spell the family name in as many different ways as you can imagine. While the Soundex system (more on Soundex later in this article) can help with most phonetic spelling differences, some variations are so unusual that a family might be located using a totally unexpected code. Even a reasonably simple name such as Willard has appeared in census records with the following spellings: Williard, Wylerd, Villard, and probably several others we have yet to encounter.

•Convert all the surnames you are going to track using the 1920 census into their corresponding Soundex codes.

•Find a good research template to help you record any information you find. At the library you could make a photocopy of any results, but the cost for this can quickly add up.

•Call ahead to confirm that the library in which you intend to conduct your research has the 1920 census records and the Soundex. We have found some libraries with the census microfilm but not the Soundex microfilm. A trip to such a library can be frustrating.

The Soundex
Armed with the necessary names and supplies, you are ready to begin using the 1920 census data. It is important to remember that this is a multiple step process and each step must be done in order. First, however, we must discuss the Soundex as this is the most important piece of the puzzle.

Prior to the enactment of Social Security in the 1930s, Congress needed to know how many people might potentially qualify for benefits under the new, national relief scheme. The census, particularly from 1880, seemed to offer the most reliable estimate of how many recipients there might be. However, no adequate index existed for the 1880 census, and the sheer numbers of Americans counted in 1880 made any indexing a daunting task.

Upon recommendation from the National Archives, a different indexing system was utilized, a Soundex system. The Works Progress Administration hired individuals to go through the census data beginning with the 1880 census and create a Soundex card–an actual 3x5 card–for each main entry in the census. In 1880, only families with children age ten and under were included in the Soundex. (These children represented the people potentially eligible for Social Security.) Later censuses were also soundexed.

In the Soundex scheme, all surnames would be reduced to a four-character code and a uniform set of rules applied to the process. A simplified list of rules follows:

1. Print out the name you wish to code. Example: WILLARD

2. Keep the first letter but remove all remaining vowels and the letters H, W, and Y. Example: WILLARD would become WLLRD (the I and A are dropped)

3. Keep the first letter but remove one consonant from any double (back to back) consonants. Example: WLLRD would be reduced to WLRD

4. Keep the first letter and use the Coding Guide to assign the appropriate number to the next three remaining consonants.

Coding Guide
B, F, P, V....1
C, G, J, K, Q, S, X, Z....2
D, T....3
L....4
M, N....5
R....6

Remember, the vowels (A, E, I, O, U) and the letters H, W, and Y are not considered at all. WILLARD is reduced to WLRD so the Soundex code is W463.

To use another example, JONES would be reduced to JNS. This would convert to J520. Note that if less than three characters follow the first letter, zeroes are used as place fillers. The name LEE would be reduced to just L and the Soundex code would thus be L000. As a final example, HENDERSHOT would be reduced to HNDRST and the Soundex code would be H536. Note that the code stops after the fourth character, even if there are consonants remaining.

For additional information on Soundex coding, refer to Using the Census Soundex, General Information Leaflet 55, published by the National Archives and Records Administration (Revised, 1997). Also, if you are online, visit a site such as www.cyndislist.com and follow the links to a Soundex converter–a program that will automatically convert any name you type into the Soundex code for that name.

You are now ready to begin your search in the library. First, locate the filing cabinet that contains the microfilm for the Soundex to the 1920 census. These rolls of microfilm are filed alphabetically by state so it is critical that you know the state where your ancestor lived in 1920. Second, locate the roll for the state that has the code you are seeking. Third, take this roll to a reader and scroll through the reel looking for the entry on your ancestor. For the most part, the microfilm is in alpha/chronological order by code, then in alphabetical order by first name. Fourth, once you locate the card for your ancestor, write down all the information you see on the card–this leads you to the actual census entry. See the sample Family Card above (taken from the publication, Using the Census Soundex). You will need the information that appears in the upper right hand corner:

Vol. — The volume number
E.D. — The enumeration district
Sheet — The sheet number
Line — The line number with your ancestor listed

Fifth, locate the filing cabinets that contain the actual rolls of census microfilm and locate the volume number you copied from the Soundex card.

Finally, take that roll to the reader and scroll to the appropriate sheet number to locate the entry for your ancestor. Congratulations! You have opened a new door on information on your family. This last step will lead you to the most useful part of the 1920 census. You will be looking at the answers to the twenty-nine questions your ancestor provided when the enumerator showed up at his or her doorstep in 1920, pencil in hand.

Included will be information on place of abode, name, relationship to head of household, personal information, citizenship, education, nativity and native tongue, and occupation. Each of these categories offers either concrete information for the researcher or clues that will lead to concrete information. Quite literally, the answers to those twenty-nine questions represent the true essence of genealogical research–the opportunity to discover previously unknown information about an ancestor or a relative. The benefits of this information are twofold. It answers some questions and provides clues that may actually answer others with additional research.

It is a good idea to keep in mind the following tips:

•Verify the information you discover by using vital records and other primary sources.

•Make a hard copy of the information–either written or photocopied–so you can refer to it at a later time.

•In your research log, write down all the relevant information (where you found the data, the page number, the microfilm roll number, etc.)

•When you locate your ancestor, scan the entire page of microfilm. Quite often, other family members lived nearby and you might gather other good information.

•If you are researching an unusual name or a small town/county, you may want to locate all census entries for that family name in that area. These other families may prove to be related to the one you are researching.

•Follow up on all the clues provided from the census data–immigration, naturalization, etc. These sources will be covered in future Step by Step articles.

Census research is one of the most rewarding activities in genealogical research. It can also be boring and frustrating. Be prepared for a little of each end of the spectrum. But one thing is sure, of all the topics we cover in our classes and workshops, no other topic generates as much excitement as census research.

   Terry and Jim Willard hosted the ten-part PBS series "Ancestors." They have researched their genealogy fifteen generations back on both sides.

Please go on Step 9: Immigration Records or click here

Give Me Your Tired
While "give me your tired" would definitely apply to a genealogist after a long day of research, it is actually a famous passage from the 1883 poem "The New Colossus," by Emma Lazarus. The poem was written as part of a project to raise funds for a pedestal for the Statue of Liberty, a gift to the United States from the people of France. The funds were raised, the base built, and the statue erected. Since then, the statue has become a symbol of the United States as well as a tribute to the millions of immigrants who have entered the country. It is to these immigrants, and the paper trail they left behind, that we turn in this article.

Genealogists are very fortunate that the people of the past left a paper trail. Unfortunately, this trail may be somewhat erratic, difficult to locate, and even incomplete, especially when compared to the trail we are leaving for our descendants to follow. However, a trail does exist.

Virtually every American can trace his or her family history back to an ancestor (or a group of ancestors) who entered this country as an immigrant. Estimates place the total number of immigrants to this country (1607 to the present) between 35 and 50 million. These immigrants generally entered through one of the port cities of the United States. If they entered legally and under normal circumstances, some type of paperwork was completed to document their entry.

Federal and State Records
The records are divided into two time periods that are identified by the level of government that kept the records. From the earliest Colonial period until approximately 1820, immigration records were kept by the colony or state where the port was located. The federal government did not require ship captains to present a list to port authorities. The colonies (and later, states) had requirements for the captains, and it is these records that exist for the time period. Approximately 1 million people entered the United States during this period, and the immigration records that exist can be found in either the port city or in the archives for that state, usually located in the state’s capital.

An excellent general reference that details these records is A Bibliography of Ship Passenger Lists, 1583-1825 (New York: New York Public Library), third edition, 1978, by Harold Lancour. You may find this book at your local library or any major research library.

Since 1820, the federal government has kept immigration records in the National Archives in Washington, D.C. Copies of some of these records are also located in the regional branches of the National Archives. It is always a good idea to call any branch of the archives to learn exactly which records can be found at that location. To find the regional archive nearest you, consult your local library.

Two types of federal immigration records have been kept since 1820:

•Customs passenger lists—These lists were kept by the U.S. Customs Service and cover the years from 1820 until approximately 1891.

•Immigration passenger lists—These lists were kept by the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS). They begin in 1906 and continue until 1957.

Each of these lists provides valuable information about our immigrant ancestors. From the customs passenger lists we can learn:

Name
Age
Gender
Occupation
Country of Embarkation
Country of Destination

In addition to these categories, the immigration passenger lists may offer place of birth, last place of residence, and name and address of a relative in the immigrant’s native country, depending on the year.

Since the vast majority of our ancestors entered this country after 1820, the obvious problem is locating information on the one person being traced. Fortunately, many of the passenger lists have been indexed and are available on microfilm through the National Archives and in major research libraries. Designated copies can be ordered from the Family History Library for use in one of the hundreds of family history centers located throughout the United States. These indexes offer the best starting point for researching existing ships’ passenger lists.

There are several ways new genealogists can begin their immigrant ancestor research. First, gather as much information as possible on the immigrant ancestor. The absolute minimum information needed to use immigration records is:

• The individual’s complete name. This should include first, middle, last, and any variations that might exist for each part. Try to experiment with spelling variations as well.

• The approximate year the individual entered the United States.

• The port city where the immigrant entered.

Any other relevant information you have been able to gather, such as the ship’s name, a port of embarkation, or a hometown in Europe, will prove invaluable. Hopefully you have been able to learn some of these facts from other sources, such as documents in your family’s possession or from family stories.

In order to get the most from passenger lists, it is important to know the year your ancestor entered the country and, if possible, the name of the ship that person entered on. The best approach is to start with a good general reference book, which can be found at any major genealogical research library. Perhaps the best of these sources is Passenger and Immigration Lists Index: A Guide to Published Arrival Records of Passengers Who Came to the United States and Canada in the Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Nineteenth Centuries, edited by William P. Filby (Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1981-). This three-volume series is updated annually.

Another potential source is the Internet. Every day additional lists are finding their way onto various Web sites, and it is a source that cannot be overlooked. However, remember there is no substitute for old-fashioned legwork, and locating immigration information requires a great deal of this.

Also, don’t forget to check publications that focus on specific ethnic groups that entered the country. Several books presented as alphabetical lists have been published dealing with ethnic groups such as German, Polish, Italian, and Russian.

We are often asked how to learn something—such as the date an immigrant entered the country—if that information is not a part of family lore. Simply start with the 1920 Census. Column 13 of the 1920 Census asks for the year of immigration to the United States. This information, while not always accurate, yields one of those key pieces of data to pursue ships’ passenger lists. Then, coupled with an educated guess as to the port of entry, you are ready to consult the various indexes available from NARA. If you do not live near a major research library or an archive where these indexes are available, you may write to the National Archives. The following contact information is taken from the NARA Web site:

Paper copies of immigration records can be ordered by mail using one NATF Form 81 for each person or family group traveling together.

You can obtain the NATF Form 81 by providing your name and mailing address to inquire@nara.gov. Be sure to specify Form 81 and the number of forms you need.

You can also obtain the NATF Form 81 by writing to: National Archives and Records Administration, Attn: NWCTB, 700 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C. 20408-0001.

Ellis Island
Any discussion of immigrant records would not be complete without reference to Ellis Island, one of America’s most revered historical sites. Between 1892 and 1954 approximately 12 million people were processed in the facilities. It is estimated that today forty percent of all Americans can trace their roots to at least one person who passed through the center.

Due to the constant interest people exhibit toward their immigrant ancestor(s), the Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation has begun computerizing the immigration records of the people who passed through the center between 1892 and 1924. Thus, Ellis Island will become the starting point for someone whose ancestors entered the United States at this port.

The first phase of the database project will be available in late 2000, and Internet access to the information will be available shortly thereafter. The data will cover eleven fields, including the person’s given name, surname, sex, age, marital status, ship they arrived on, port of origin, departure date from that port, nationality, and last residence. If a researcher discovers information on his or her family, a printout of the information will be available for a small fee, as will a scanned image of the original ship’s manifest and a picture of the ship. The project at Ellis Island represents some of the best technology for genealogists and will serve as a model for other similar projects.

One of the most rewarding aspects of genealogical research is the contact we have with the lives of our ancestors through the records they left behind. Did they ever question the paper trail they left behind?

What was the experience like for the steerage passengers who arrived at Ellis Island? Were they inspired by the beautiful statue that stood before them? Regardless of our ancestors’ thoughts during the stressful days of immigration, genealogists today benefit from the documents they routinely filled out. It is through these records that we learn to understand a bit more their courage and hope in the unforeseen future.

   Terry and Jim Willard hosted the ten-part PBS series "Ancestors." They have researched their genealogy fifteen generations back on both sides.

Please go on Step 10: Naturalization Records or click here